Diverse Perspectives Glossary

*Anopheles*	A genus of mosquitos with approximately 460 species. Roughly 30-40 of these species transmit Plasmodium parasites, causing malaria in humans. Anopheles Gambiaeis the most commonly known species due to its efficient malaria transmission, thus making it a primary target for gene drive research and development.
Asian Citrus Psyliid	A small, sap-sucking bug that feeds on citrus leaves and stems. First discovered in Asia, this bug is now present in states across the US. Farmers are concerned by the spread of this bug because it transmits a devastating bacteria, which causes the deadly citrus disease Huanglongbing.
Embryo	The fertilization of a female egg by a sperm produces a single-celled zygote. Half of the DNA within this cell comes from the egg and half comes from the sperm. The zygote then turns into an embryo. Changes made to the DNA of a zygote or early embryo will appear in all the cells of the body as the embryo develops. Genetic changes made to these germ cells also pass down to future generations.
Enhancements	Most people have abilities that exist within a given range that we call “normal.” For example, a person cannot lift a truck or see infrared light. An enhancement is a change that extends a certain aspect of a person beyond normal capabilities. These changes can be made at the genetic level or through other ways (robotics, chemicals, surgery, etc.)
Eradicate	The complete removal of a species or a disease from an environment. One proposed gene drive strategy (population suppression) is to eradicate a species of mosquitos in order to stop the spread of malaria.
Eugenics	The process of influencing who reproduces and who does not in order to increase the likelihood of society passing on desirable traits. Some people suggest that allowing genome editing on human embryos could lead to eugenics because certain traits (deafness) may be removed from society, thus reducing the population of certain communities (deaf community).
Fertility clinics	Medical clinics that assist couples or individuals who want to become parents. These clinics would be the locations where individuals would hypothetically go to perform genome editing on human embryos. At these clinics, doctors may implant an embryo into a female eventually resulting in a birth.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)	A federal agency responsible for protecting and promoting public health. The FDA is in charge of which new therapies may go through clinical trials to become and approved therapy for the public. Currently, the FDA does not approve clinical applications involving genome editing of germ cells.
Gene drives	A mechanism for preferential inheritance of a particular DNA sequence. Usually, offspring have a semi-random chance of inheriting a given stretch of DNA from either parent. In a scientist-designed gene drive, a gene is engineered to have a 100% chance of being passed on. Gene drives can force the inheritance of a desirable trait through a population of organisms. For example, this approach could potentially make all mosquitoes incapable of transmitting the malaria parasite.
Genetic disease	Some diseases are genetic, meaning they are caused by small differences (variants) in our DNA that we inherit from our biological parents. These might be DNA variants that “run in the family”. They could also be DNA variants that are spontaneous in the original sperm and egg that came together to form us.
Genome	The entire DNA sequence of an organism or virus. The genome is essentially a huge set of instructions for making individual parts of a cell and directing how everything should run.
Genome editing	Intentionally altering the genetic code of a living organism. Can be done with CRISPR or other proteins. These systems are used to create a double-strand break at a specific DNA site. When the cell repairs the break, the sequence is changed. Genome editing can be used to remove, change, or add DNA.
Genome-edited	An organism that has had its DNA altered using genome editing. This may include CRISPR or other technologies capable of altering DNA at precise locations.
Germ cells	The cells involved in sexual reproduction: eggs, sperm, and precursor cells that develop into eggs or sperm. The DNA in germ cells, including any mutations or intentional genetic edits, may be passed down to the next generation. In contrast, the genetic material in somatic cells (all the cells in the body except for germ cells) cannot be inherited by offspring. Note that genome editing in an early embryo is considered to be germline editing since any DNA changes will likely end up in all cells of the organism that is eventually born.
CRISPR	Pronounced “crisper.” An adaptive immune system found in bacteria and archaea, co-opted as a genome engineering tool. CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins use short sequences of RNA to identify and cut complementary (matching) sequences of DNA.
CRISPR-edited	An organism that has had its DNA altered using CRISPR.
Huanglongbing (HLB)	A destructive disease, also known as citrus greening disease, that targets citrus plants. The disease is caused by the bacterium Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus, which is transmitted by the bug Asian Citrus Psyllid. This disease has no cure and the current method to stop the spread of the disease is to remove the entire tree.
Implantation	If an embryo is created outside of the body, implantation is the step where the embryo is introduced into the female. The embryo begins to receive oxygen and nutrients from the female and continues to develop.
Insecticide	A substance, either natural or synthetic, which is used to kill insects. Plants make their own insecticides as a natural form of defense, while farmers utilize insecticides to protect their crops from infestation.
Malaria	An infectious disease spread by mosquitoes. Symptoms can include headaches and fevers all the way to seizures and death. Malaria is widespread primarily around the equator including Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Communities use multiple methods to prevent mosquito bites including nets and insect repellent. Scientists are considering the use of gene drives to reduce mosquito populations or prevent the insect’s ability to spread the disease.
Mutation	A change from one genetic letter (nucleotide) to another. Variation in DNA sequence gives rise to the incredible diversity of species in the world, and even occurs between different organisms of the same species. While some mutations have no consequence at all, certain mutations can directly cause disease. Mutations may be caused by DNA-damaging agents such as UV light or may arise from errors that occur when DNA is copied by cellular enzymes. They can also be made deliberately via genome engineering methods.
Myostatin gene	A sequence of DNA which produces the myostatin protein. This protein slows or stops muscle growth. If the myostatin gene is turned off then muscles will grow abnormally large.
Organic	Certified organic foods are grown and processed according to federal guidelines addressing, among many factors, soil quality, animal raising practices, pest and weed control, and use of additives. Organic producers rely on natural substances and physical, mechanical, or biologically based farming methods to the fullest extent possible.
Plasmodium	A single-celled parasite that is transported by insects like mosquitoes. The plasmodium cells are injected into the host (human) while the mosquito is feeding off the host’s blood. The plasmodium make their way to red blood cells and replicate until the cells burst and the plasmodium infect more red blood cells. Mosquitoes are then able to transfer plasmodium from the infected host to a new host.
Population replacement	A gene drive strategy that replaces the wild population of mosquitoes with a genetically engineered population. For example, scientists are engineering mosquitoes that are unable to transmit malaria. This strategy would not remove a specific species of mosquitoes from the environment.
Population suppression	A gene drive strategy that results in the removal of a mosquito species from the environment. For example, scientists are engineering mosquitoes that produce offspring of the same gender, thus the insects are unable to reproduce. This strategy quickly reduces and eliminates a population.
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD)	A procedure used prior to implanting an embryo, which is used to help identify genetic mutations. This serves to prevent certain genetic diseases or disorders from being passed on to the child. The embryos used in PGD are created outside the body by combining an egg and sperm.
Risk/benefit analyses	The process of comparing the risk of an action to the potential benefits of that action. People tend to accept a certain amount of risk if the benefit is significant. For example, driving a car is extremely risky, but this quick mode of transportation has many benefits.
Sickle cell disease (SCD)	This genetic disease affects nearly 100,000 Americans, and millions more globally. SCD patients share a single-letter DNA mutation that leads to moon-shaped, “sickled,” red blood cells which can block blood vessels, causing immense pain and poor oxygen transport throughout the body. Current patients anticipate life expectancies in the mid-forties and currently no universally applicable treatment or cure exists.
Somatic cells	All the cells in a multicellular organism except for germ cells (eggs or sperm). Mutations or changes to the DNA in the soma will not be inherited by subsequent generations.
United Nations (UN)	An international government organization whose goal is to maintain global peace and safety. One area of focus for the UN is economic development and humanitarian assistance. Additionally, this organization helps countries deal with public health crises, especially areas with limited resources.
Vaccine	A substance taken to help the body develop immunity to a particular disease.